1.+Social+and+Ethical+Issues

Section 1: social and ethical issues

The widespread use of IT raises questions about social and ethical issues that shape the world today. Students should become familiar with all the social and ethical issues described in this section. Teachers should introduce the social and ethical issues as appropriate using the integrated approach illustrated in the diagram at the beginning of the syllabus details. In this way students can examine social and ethical issues that are raised when IT systems are used in a range of areas. The use of IT is likely to bring both advantages and disadvantages, both costs and benefits, and students should study the impact of IT in a critical way. It is important that examples are drawn from the local, national and global level. **1.1 Reliability** Reliability refers to the operation of hardware, the design of software, the accuracy of data or the correspondence of data with the real world. Data may be unreliable if it is entered incorrectly or if it becomes outdated. For example, a medical record that becomes dissociated from the patient it refers to becomes unreliable. The reliability of machines, software and data determines our confidence in their value. DOES IT WORK? **1.2 Integrity** Integrity refers to correspondence of data with itself, at its creation. Data lacks integrity when it has been changed accidentally or tampered with. For example, a hacker might change driver licence data resulting in arrests of innocent people. HAS THE DATA BEEN CHANGED OR CORRUPTED? **1.3 Security** Security refers to the protection of hardware, software, machines and networks from unauthorized access, alteration or destruction. Security measures include restricted access to machines and networks and encryption of information. The degree of security of information systems determines society’s confidence in the information contained in the systems. QUESTIONS RELATED TO KEEPING OUT UNWANTED VISITORS **1.4 Privacy and anonymity**

Privacy is the ability of individuals and groups to determine for themselves when, how and to what extent information about themselves is shared with others. At its extreme, privacy becomes anonymity, which might be called for in some contexts but is dangerous in others. For example, discussion of a delicate subject might require anonymity, or at least privacy. On the other hand, anonymity could also conceal the perpetrators of criminal, terrorist or computer hacking acts.

**1.5 Authenticity** Authenticity means establishing the user’s identity beyond reasonable doubt. Authenticating the user is crucial in many situations, particularly in business and legal matters. A simple example of authentication is user login onto a network. A more advanced example would be the use of encrypted digital signatures in a business transaction.

**1.6 Intellectual property** Intellectual property includes ideas, discoveries, writings, works of art, software, collections and presentations of data. Copyrights, trademarks and patents legally protect intellectual property, but easy and accurate duplication methods made available by IT can undermine such protections. On the other hand, the same methods create opportunity for inexpensive dissemination of information. COPYRIGHT **1.7 Equality of access** IT has the potential to offer universal access to information, regardless of distance, age, race, gender or other personal characteristics. However, the above characteristics, and cost, can also bar individuals or groups from access. For example, while telelearning brings previously unavailable opportunities to everyone’s doorstep, the cost of hardware, software or course fees might place the learning beyond the reach of an average person. QUESTIONS RELATED TO EQUALITY OF ACCESS AND OPPORTUNITY **1.8 Control** As an instrument of control, IT improves reliability, accuracy and speed of systems. However, it can also be used to control people. An automatic aircraft landing system provides an example of increased reliability resulting from IT control. Employer surveillance of employees represents a new kind of control imposed on people.

**1.9 Globalization and cultural diversity** Globalization means the diminishing importance of geographic, political, economic and cultural boundaries. IT has played a major role in reducing these boundaries. For example, any dramatic event anywhere in the world can be broadcast almost instantly by television or on the Internet. However, there is a fear that easier communication can become a source of cultural homogeneity. The new global village provides a worldwide cultural awareness, but may lead to less diversity.

**1.10 Policies and standards** Policies are enforceable measures intended to promote appropriate use. They can be developed by governments, businesses, and private groups or individuals. They normally consist of rules governing access to, or use of, information, hardware and software. For example, a national policy on IT security would need to define what constitutes unlawful access to networks and how to treat transgression. Policies also affect the exchange of information, for example, by making it subject to copyright laws. In general, policies can promote or restrict access, modify behaviour or require the fulfillment of certain conditions prior to or during use. RULES FROM GOVERNMENTS AND ORGANISATIONS Standards are social or technical rules and conventions that enable compatibility and therefore facilitate communication or interoperability between different IT systems and their components. They might govern the design and use of hardware, software and information. For example, communication protocols used on the Internet, the ASCII representation for characters, or the design of the printer port on a personal computer are all governed by standards. COMMON WAYS OF WORKING USING TECHNOLOGY E.G. ASCII, JPG, wifi, smtp **1.11 People and machines** The interaction of humans with IT hardware raises all the issues encountered in this section, as well as additional ones such as the following. ISSUES RELATED TO THE WAY NEW SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE CHANGES THE WAY PEOPLE WORK AND BEHAVE. EG. INTERNET USE LEADS TO CONTINUOUS PARTIAL ATTENTION WHERE USERS ARE INTERRUPTED AND FOCUS LESS ON ASINGLE TASK SUCH AS READING A NOVEL FOR EXTENDED PERIODS OF TIME.
 * Who controls the design of technology and the pace of its introduction?

SOMETIMES ORGANISATIONS INHIBIT THE DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY FOR BUSINESS REASONS. FOR EXAMPLE, APPLE DESIGNED ITS IPOD MUSIC PLAYERS TO REQUIRE ITUNES TO SYNC CONTENT ONE WAY TO THE DEVICE AND NOT VICE VERSA. SONY AND AMAZON IMPLEMENTED THEIR EREADER TECHNOLOGIES WITH DIGITAL RIGHTS MANAGEMENT TO PREVENT PIRACY OF EBOOKS, BUT THIS ALSO MEANT THAT CUSTOMERS WERE LOCKED INTO THEIR EBOOK STORES (KINDLE AND SONY)
 * How safe and effective is the design?

ORGANISATIONS HAVE AN OBLIGATION TO MAKE SURE THEIR HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ARE SAFE AND DO NOT CAUSE LONG TERM HEALTH PROBLEMS, BUT THERE CAN BE UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES FROM FAULTY DESIGNS. FOR EXAMPLE, SONY HAD TO RECALL FAULTY LAPTOP BATTERIES IN 2006 AND 2008.
 * Is technology going to extend human faculties and make work easier and more pleasant, or are machines going to displace humans and lead to mass unemployment?

MANY JOBS HAVE BEEN LOST IN AREAS WHERE COMPUTER AND ROBOTIC AUTOMATION REDUCE THE NUMBER OF HUMANS REQUIRED TO PERFORM A JOB. WORDPROCESSING SOFTWARE HAS ALLOWED A SMALL OFFICE OF SECRETARIAL STAFF TO REPLACE TYPING POOLS. ROBOTS IN CAR FACTORIES PERFORM SPOT WELDING AND SPRAY PAINTING.
 * Is technology used appropriately, or should a better, possibly non-technological alternative be found?

FIELDS OF APPROPRIATE IT USE INCLUDE COMMUNICATION, DATA HANDLING, ANALYSIS, MODELLING, CONTROL SYSTEMS, AI, ENTERTAINMENT

PROBLEMS OCCUR WHEN DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES ARE USED EXCESSIVELY OR THEIR ROUTINE USE CAUSES UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES. EXAMPLES OF UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES INCLUDE LOSS OF PRIVACY, NEW SECURITY RISKS, DISRUPTION TO EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES AND BUSINESS MODELS, INTERNET ADDICTION. CASES AND EXAMPLES ARE NEEDED.


 * Which areas of human endeavour are best served by IT systems?

JARON LANIER ARGUES THAT INAPPROPRIATE USE OF TECHNOLOGY LEADS TO ELEVATING COMPUTERS AS BEING BETTER THAN US. THIS LEADS PEOPLE DUMBING THEMSELVES DOWN TO MAKE COMPUTERS FIT THEIR VIEW AS BEING SUPERIOR. FOR EXAMPLE, THE NETFLIX ALOGRITHM AUTOMATES MOVIE SELECTION FROM A SMALL POOL OF FILMS.
 * Which social and ethical issues arise from a comparison of people and machines in the following areas: stamina, memory, accuracy, speed, analysis, synthesis, judgment, innovation, creativity?

STAMINA: FOOTBALL PLAYERS HAVE SENSORS TO MONITOR THEIR PERFORMANCE SO THEY ARE LESS PRONE TO INJURY DURING TRAINING. RUNNERS CAN COLLECT DATA AS THEY RUN TO LOG THEIR PERFORMANCE.

MEMORY: GPS EXTERNALISES OUR MEMORY. SEE 'THE SHALLOWS' FOR CARR'S CASE STUDY ON HOW TAXI DRIVERS SPATIAL CAPABILITIES DECREASED AFTER THEY STARTED TO USE GPS DEVICES.

ACCURACY: MIDI IS A PRECISE REPRESENTATION OF NOTES, BUT IT ALSO LOSES THE FULL TONAL RANGE THAT IS AVAILABLE IN ANALOGUE MUSIC. SEE JARON LANIER 'YOU ARE NOT A GADGET' FOR HIS ACCOUNT OF MIDI AS A CASE STUDY FOR LOCK IN CAUSED BY TECHNOLOGY.

SPEED: COMPUTERS CAN PERFORM AUTOMATED AND REPEATED TASKS MORE EFFICIENTLY THAN OLD MANUAL ACTIVITIES. E-MAIL CAN BE SENT AROUND THE WORLD IN SECONDS WHEREAS TELEGRAPHS USED TO TAKE 8 MINUTES TO SEND FROM LONDON TO INDIA AND YOU COULD ONLY SEND ONE MESSAGE AT A TIME OVER THE TELEGRAPH CABLE.

ANALYSIS: COMPUTERS COLLATE DATA ALLOWING IT TO BE VIEWED IN DIFFERENT WAYS USING FORMULAE, QUERIES AND AUTOMATED REPORTS. FOR EXAMPLE, A SCHOOL REPORT SYSTEM CAN GENERATE A LIST OF BOYS BORN IN JANUARY WHOSE EFFORT GRADE WAS BELOW THE AVERAGE FOR THEIR COHORT. SUCH ANALYSIS WAS POSSIBLE IN THE PREDIGITAL ERA, BUT IT WAS VERY TIME CONSUMING AND LACKED FLEXIBILITY.

SYNTHESIS: IN A SENSE ALL DIGITAL OBJECTS ARE SYNTHETIC, BECAUSE THEY ARE MADE OF 1S AND 0S. WE ARE ALL AWARE OF THIS WHEN OUR DATA GETS LOST AFTER HARDWARE FAILURE. IT CAN ALSO MEAN THAT WE TAKE PARTS OF OTHER DIGITAL OBJECTS TO BUILD SOMETHING NEW CALLED A MASHUP. EXAMPLES OF MASHUPS INCLUDE DATA FROM A CRIME DATASET BEING INTEGRATED TO A GOOGLE MAP TO SHOW A MAP OF CRIME.

JUDGEMENT: COMPUTERS ARE BEING USED TO HELP PEOPLE MAKE DECISIONS. OIL COMPANIES USE EXPERT SYSTEM TO ASSIST DECISION MAKING WHEN CHOOSING A DRILLING SITE. CRITICS ARGUE THIS IS UNDERMINING THE ROLE OF PEOPLE WHO ARE MORE QUALIFIED THAN MACHINES TO MAKE GOOD

DECISIONS. MASHUPS ARE ALSO USING PARTS OF SONGS AND MOVIES TO CREATE NEW EDITS. LISTEN TO DJ SOULWAX WHO BLENDS SONGS TOGETHER FROM MULTIPLE TRACKS. HIP HOP HAS BEEN CREATING MASHUPS FOR 30 YEARS. CRITICS SUCH AS JARON LANIER SEE MASHUPS AS EXAMPLES OF LAZY CUT AND PASTE CULTURE THAT CREATES POOR RESULTS BASED ON FRAGMENTS. LANIER DESCRIBES THIS AS DIGITAL MUSH.

INNOVATION: NEW PRODUCTS AND FORMS OF EXPRESSION EXIST THAT WOULD HAVE BEEN IMPOSSIBLE BEFORE THE COMPUTER ERA. THESE INCLUDE VIDEO GAMES, WEB DESIGN, BLOGGING AND PODCASTING. COMPUTERS ARE ALSO SEEN TO DEVELOPING SLOWLY IN SOME AREAS. SOFTWARE HAS NOT CHANGED VERY MUCH IN 10 YEARS AS COMPUTERS STILL RUN A GUI OS WITH APPLICATIONS INCLUDING OFFICE SOFTWARE AND AN INTERNET BROWSER.



